List of Contributors xix Foreword xxv Section 1 Conventional Food Processing 1 1 Drying and Dehydration Processes in Food Preservation and Processing 3 Panagiotis A. Michailidis and Magdalini K. Krokida 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Drying kinetics 4 1.3 Different drying processes 4 1.4 Conclusions 28 Abbreviations 29 References 29 2 Size Reduction Practices in Food Processing 33 A. Chakkaravarthi and Suvendu Bhattacharya 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Applications of the grinding process 35 2.3 Grinding energy laws 38 2.4 Machinery requirement 39 2.5 Mechanism of size reduction 44 2.6 Size reduction of liquid 46 2.7 Conclusions 48 References 48 3 Dough Processing: Sheeting, Shaping, Flattening and Rolling 51 B. Patel and O. H. Campanella 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Dough sheeting 52 3.3 Shaping 68 References 71 4 Extrusion Processing of Foods 75 Rupesh Kumar Dubey and Suvendu Bhattacharya 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Application of extrusion technology 76 4.3 Description of an extruder 77 4.4 Selected extrusion technology 81 4.5 Post-extrusion treatment 87 4.6 Quality characteristics of product 89 4.7 Equations related to food extrusion 90 4.8 Present status 92 References 93 5 The Process of Gelling 99 Shanthilal J. and Suvendu Bhattacharya 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Classification of gels 100 5.3 Gelling process 103 5.4 Mechanism of gel formation 104 5.5 Methods for characterization of gels 105 5.6 Mathematical models 109 5.7 Conclusions 111 References 111 6 Thermal Food Preservation Techniques (Pasteurization, Sterilization, Canning and Blanching) 115 Arthur A. Teixeira 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Pasteurization and sterilization 116 6.3 Aseptic processing 119 6.4 Canning 121 6.5 Blanching 127 References 128 7 Extraction Processes 129 K. Udaya Sankar 7.1 Introduction 129 7.2 Conventional extraction 129 7.3 Advanced extraction processes 130 References 151 8 Baking 159 R. Sai Manohar 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 Bread 160 8.3 Biscuit 173 8.4 Cake 182 8.5 Machinery 189 8.6 Conclusions 192 References 193 9 Frying of Foods 197 Franco Pedreschi and Javier Enrione 9.1 Introduction 197 9.2 Frying as a unit operation 199 9.3 Properties of fried products 202 9.4 Machinery of frying 208 9.5 Stability of fried products 211 9.6 Conclusions 215 References 216 10 Roasting and Toasting Operations in Food: Process Engineering and Applications 221 Sila Bhattacharya 10.1 Introduction 221 10.2 Applications of the process in specific foods 222 10.3 Process modelling 232 10.4 Machinery and methods 235 10.5 Changes during roasting/toasting 239 10.6 Recent researches 241 10.7 Possible future applications 242 10.8 Conclusions 242 Symbols 243 References 243 11 Micronization and Encapsulation: Application of Supercritical Fluids in Water Removal 249 M. Thereza M. S. Gomes, Diego T. Santos and M. Angela A. Meireles 11.1 Introduction 249 11.2 Supercritical fluid 251 11.3 Developmental stages 251 11.4 Process description and influence of process parameters 252 11.5 Conclusions and future perspectives 262 Abbreviations 263 References 263 12 Flavouring and Coating Technologies for Preservation and Processing of Foods 267 Miguel A. Cerqueira, Maria Jose Costa, Melissa C. Rivera, Oscar L. Ramos and Antonio A. Vicente 12.1 Introduction 267 12.2 Flavouring of foods 269 12.3 Edible coatings for food applications 280 12.4 Food flavouring by coating 287 12.5 Regulatory aspects and future trends 293 References 296 13 Instantization and Agglomeration of Foods 313 Siddeswari Sindawal and Suvendu Bhattacharya 13.1 Introduction 313 13.2 Applications of the technology/process 314 13.3 Process technology 324 13.4 Scientific principles 330 13.5 Conclusions and future possibilities 331 References 332 14 Fortification and Impregnation Practices in Food Processing 337 Beate Petersen 14.1 Introduction 337 14.2 Food modification by vacuum impregnation 338 14.3 Food modification by osmotic dehydration 339 14.4 Influence parameters on food modification by VI and OD 340 14.5 Traditional and future applications 348 14.6 Combination of OD and VI with other processes 350 14.7 Conclusions 352 Abbreviations 353 References 353 15 Refrigeration in Food Preservation and Processing 357 Q. Tuan Pham 15.1 Introduction 357 15.2 Changes in foods during refrigeration 359 15.3 Chilling and freezing time prediction 362 15.4 Refrigeration equipment 370 15.5 Refrigerated storage and transport 375 15.6 Recent developments in food refrigeration 381 15.7 Conclusions 383 References 384 16 Biotransformation in Food Processing 387 Lalitagauri Ray and Debabrata Bera 16.1 Introduction 387 16.2 Production of gluconic acid 389 16.3 Ascorbic acid 392 16.4 Lactose hydrolysis by -galactosidase 393 16.5 Invert sugar 395 16.6 Production of oligosaccharides 397 16.7 Glucose isomerization 397 16.8 Production of flavour and fragrance 399 16.9 Artificial sweetener 401 16.10 Conclusions 403 References 404 Section 2 Advanced Processes 411 17 Ultraviolet in Food Preservation and Processing 413 Albert Ibarz, Alfonso Garvin and Victor Falguera 17.1 Introduction 413 17.2 Microbial disinfection 417 17.3 Mycotoxin elimination 423 17.4 Inactivation of enzymes in juices 425 17.5 Improvement of polymer films 426 17.6 Conclusions 427 References 427 18 Application of Microwave Technology in Food Preservation and Processing 437 Birgitta Wappling Raaholt, Emma Holtz, Sven Isaksson and Lilia Ahrne 18.1 Introduction 437 18.2 Background 437 18.3 Principles 439 18.4 Applications of microwave in food preservation and processing 451 18.5 Present status and future possibilities 461 18.6 Conclusions 464 References 465 19 Infrared in Food Preservation and Processing 471 Ipsita Das and S.K. Das 19.1 Introduction 471 19.2 Theory of infrared drying 472 19.3 Application of infrared energy in food industry 477 19.4 Conclusions 492 References 495 20 Application of Radiowave Frequency in Food Processing 501 Francesco Marra, Tesfaye Faye Bedane, Rahmi Uyar, Ferruh Erdogdu and James G. Lyng 20.1 Introduction 501 20.2 Principles of RF processing 502 20.3 Use of RF heating in food processing 503 20.4 Factors influencing RF heating processes 507 20.5 Computer simulation of RF heating in food processing 508 20.6 Conclusions 509 References 509 21 Application of Ultrasonics in Food Preservation and Processing 515 Anet Re zek Jambrak and Zoran Herceg 21.1 Introduction 515 21.2 Ultrasound mechanism 516 21.3 Application of ultrasound in food processing 522 21.4 Conclusions 531 References 532 22 Membrane Processing 537 Alfredo Cassano, Carmela Conidi and Enrico Drioli 22.1 Introduction 537 22.2 Terminology and general considerations 538 22.3 Pressure-driven membrane operations 540 22.4 Electrodialysis 544 22.5 Membrane contactors 546 22.6 Membrane bioreactors 552 22.7 Pervaporation 555 22.8 Conclusions 560 Abbreviations 560 References 561 23 Nanoparticles and Nanotechnology in Food 567 Shanthilal J. and Suvendu Bhattacharya 23.1 Introduction 567 23.2 Advantages of nanotechnology 569 23.3 Applications in food preservation and processing 570 23.4 Process technology 582 23.5 Regulatory and safety issues 585 23.6 Conclusions 588 References 588 24 High Pressure Processing: Current Status 595 Mukund V. Karwe, Jose Maldonado and Swetha Mahadevan 24.1 Introduction 595 24.2 Heat transfer during high pressure processing 596 24.3 Mass transfer during high pressure processing 601 24.4 Studies on nonuniformity of pressure in solid foods 604 24.5 Effect of high pressure on bioactive compounds in foods 606 24.6 Mechanisms of microbial inactivation during high pressure processing 608 References 610 25 Ozone Processing 617 Fatima A. Miller, Teresa R.S. Brandao and Cristina L.M. Silva 25.1 Introduction 617 25.2 Ozone properties 619 25.3 Ozone generation 620 25.4 Antimicrobial action 622 25.5 Applications of ozone 627 25.6 Remarks on health and safety concerns 637 References 637 26 Application of Pulsed Electric Fields in Food 645 Claudia Siemer, Kemal Aganovic, Stefan Toepfl and Volker Heinz 26.1 Introduction 645 26.2 Princi