Table of Contents Acknowledgementsi List of Abbreviationsx List of Figuresxivch. IIntroduction11.1.Problem Statement21.2.Research Questions51.3.Structure of the Study61.4.Scope of the Study71.5.Relevance of the Study81.6.Methodology and Approach10ch. II"World" of Private-Sector Standards132.1.Defining the Concept of a Private-Sector Standard142.1.1.Main Characteristics of Private-Sector Standards and Their Conformity Assessment Procedures162.1.1.1.Defining the Concept of a Standard162.1.1.2.Mandatory or Voluntary?172.1.1.3.Excluding Services and Consensus Rule192.1.1.4.Main Characteristics of Private-Sector Standards202.1.1.5.Some Examples of Private Sector Standards422.1.1.6.Reasons for Using the Term "Private-Sector Standard"242.1.1.7.Brief Definition of a Private-Sector Standard and its Conformity Assessment Procedure252.1.2.Operational Stages of Private-Sector Standards262.1.2.1.Preparation of a Standard262.1.2.2.Adoption of a Standard272.1.2.3.Application of a Standard272.1.2.4.Implementation of a Standard282.1.2.5.Conformity Assessment and Enforcement of a Standard292.2.Typology of Private-Sector Standards292.2.1.Choice of Relevant Criteria for Typology of Private-Sector Standards302.2.2.Forms of Private-Sector Standards322.2.3.Types of Organizations Adopting Private-Sector Standards342.2.3.1.How a Document Becomes a Private-Sector Standard: De Facto and De Jure Private-Sector Standards352.2.3.2.Private-Sector Standards Developed by Different Types of Organizations382.2.3.2.1.Individual Company Private-Sector Standards392.2.3.2.2.Collective Private-Sector Standards412.2.3.2.2.1.Advantages of Collective Private-Sector Standards412.2.3.2.2.2.Forms of Incorporation of Private Standard-Setting Entities432.2.3.2.2.3.National, Regional and International Private-Sector Standards462.2.4.Level of Governmental Involvement or Incentives for the Adoption and Application of Private-Sector Standards492.2.4.1.Private-Sector Standards vs. Public-Sector Standards492.2.4.2.Public and Private-Sector Standards vs. Technical Regulations512.2.4.3.Resolving Private vs. Public Dilemma: Which Standards Are Relevant?542.2.4.3.1.International Standard-Setting Organizations552.2.4.3.2.Regional Standards-Setting Organizations572.2.4.3.3.National Standards Bodies582.2.4.3.4.Private-Public Regulatory Continuum602.2.5.Objectives of Private-Sector Standards622.2.6.Targeted Organizations for the Implementation of Private-Sector Standards642.2.7.Targeted Clients of Private-Sector Standards672.2.8.Scope of Private-Sector Standards: Product and Process Requirements692.2.9.Conformity Assessment Systems of Private-Sector Standards742.3.Role of Private-Sector Standards in International Trade772.3.1.Proliferation of Private-Sector Standards782.3.2.Reasons for the Proliferation of Private-Sector Standards802.3.2.1.Globalization of International Trade812.3.2.2.Evolving Consumer Demands and Business Reputation842.3.2.3.Corporate Social Responsibility892.3.2.4.Increased Business Concentration922.3.2.5.Changes in the Regulatory Environment952.3.2.5.1.Shifts in the Regulatory Approach to Process-Based Criteria962.3.2.5.2.Insufficient Flexibility, Effectiveness and the Mobility of Public Regulation1012.3.2.5.3.Product Liability Rules and Risk Management1042.3.3.Effects of Private-Sector Standards on International Trade1062.3.3.1.Positive Effects of Private-Sector Standards1072.3.3.2.Challenges Posed by Private-Sector Standards1112.3.4.Meeting the Challenges Posed by Private-Sector Standards1182.3.4.1.Private-Sector Standards and WTO Rules1192.3.4.2.Private-Sector Standards, IP Rights and Competition Law1232.4.Summary and Conclusions130ch. IIIPrivate-Sector Standards under the GATT 1994 and the International Law Rules on the Attribution of Conduct to WTO Members1353.1.Scope of Application of the GATT 19941363.1.1.Material Scope of Application of the GATT 1994: Mandatory or Voluntary Measures?1373.1.2.Personal Scope of Application of the GATT 19941413.1.2.1.Responsibility of WTO Members under the GATT 1994 for Their Measures Affecting Private Behaviour1433.1.2.2.Are There Implicit or Explicit Positive Obligations to Discipline Private Conduct Under the GATT 1994?1463.1.3.Temporal Scope of Application of the GATT 19941483.2.Attribution of Private Conduct to WTO Members1493.2.1.Attribution of Private Conduct to States Under the General Rules of Customary International Law1503.2.1.1.Conduct of State Organs and Entities Exercising Elements of Governmental Authority1513.2.1.2.Conduct Directed or Controlled by a State, or Accepted by a State as Its Own1533.2.2.Attribution of Private Conduct to WTO Members Under the GATT 1994 and Certain Other WTO Agreements1583.2.2.1.Practice on the Attribution of Private Conduct Under the GATT 19941593.2.2.1.1.General Approach to the Attribution of Private Conduct Under the GATT 19941593.2.2.1.2.Attribution of Conduct of State Trading Enterprises Under the GATT 19941633.2.2.2.Practice on the Attribution of Private Conduct Under Certain Other WTO Agreements1673.2.2.2.1.Attribution of Private Conduct Under the SCM Agreement1673.2.2.2.2.Attribution of Private Conduct Under the Agreement on Agriculture1723.3.Relevant Rules of the GATT 19941753.3.1.Non-Discrimination Obligations: Most-Favoured-Nation and National Treatment1763.3.1.1.Essence of MFN Treatment Obligation1763.3.1.2.Essence of National Treatment Obligation.1783.3.1.3."Like Products" in Articles 1:1 and 111:41843.3.1.4.Any Advantage "Accorded Immediately and Unconditionally" in Article I:11883.3.1.5."Treatment No Less Favourable" in Article 111:41903.3.2.Rules on the Publication and Administration of Trade Laws and Regulations1933.3.2.1.Publication of Trade Laws and Regulations1953.3.2.2.Administration of Trade Laws and Regulations1983.3.3.Elimination of Quantitative Restrictions on the Importation or Exportation of Products2013.3.4.General Exceptions From the GATT Obligations2073.3.4.1.Measures Necessary to Protect Public Morals2113.3.4.2.Measures Necessary to Protect Life or Health2143.3.4.3.Measures Necessary to Secure Compliance With Laws or Regulations2173.3.4.4.Measures Relating to the Conservation of Exhaustible Natural Resources2193.3.4.5.Chapeau of Article XX2243.3.5.Non-Violation and Situation Complaints2303.3.6.Processes and Production Methods Under the GATT 19942333.4.Summary and Conclusions237ch. IVPrivate-Sector Standards and the TBT Agreement2414.1.Scope of Application of the TBT Agreement2434.1.1.Material Scope of Application of the TBT Agreement2444.1.1.1.Technical Regulation2454.1.1.2.Standard2574.1.1.3.Conformity Assessment Procedures2674.1.1.4.Processes and Production Methods Under the TBT Agreement2694.1.1.4.1.Negotiation History of the TBT Agreement and PPMs2724.1.1.4.2.Dispute Settlement Practice Under the TBT Agreement and PPMs2784.1.2.Relationship of the TBT Agreement With Other WTO Agreements2814.1.2.1.Relationship With the GATS2814.1.2.2.Relationship With the Agreement on Government Procurement2824.1.2.3.Relationship With the SPS Agreement2834.1.2.4.Relationship With the GATT 19942844.1.3.Personal Scope of Application of the TBT Agreement2874.1.3.1.Central and Local Governmental Bodies2874.1.3.2.Non-Governmental Bodies2894.1.3.3.Regional Bodies2904.1.4.Temporal Scope of Application of the TBT Agreement2924.2.Obligations of WTO Members With Respect to Different Types of Bodies2934.2.1.Positive Obligations2954.2.1.1.Positive Obligations With Respect to Technical Regulations2954.2.1.2.Positive Obligations With Respect to Standards2964.2.1.3.Positive Obligations With Respect to Conformity Assessment Procedures2974.2.1.4.Available "Reasonable" Measures2984.2.2.Negative Obligations3114.3.Main Disciplines of the TBT Agreement3124.3.1.MFN and National Treatment Obligations3134.3.2.Prohibition of Unnecessary Obstacles to Trade3194.3.3.Harmonization Based on Relevant International Standards3234.3.4.Other Obligations3324.3.4.1.Equivalence and Mutual Recognition3334.3.4.2.Product Requireme